Monte Carlo References

Titre
Multimodality Molecular Imaging Laboratory
Adresse

Division of Nuclear Medicine & Molecular Imaging
1205 Genève
Switzerland

Complément d'adresse
Rue Gabrielle-Perret-Gentil 4
Professor
Habib Zaidi
Head of Multimodality Molecular Imaging Laboratory

1 M. S. Rosenthal, J. Cullom, W. Hawkins, S. C. Moore, B. M. Tsui, M. Yester, "Quantitative SPECT imaging: a review and recommendations by the Focus Committee of the Society of Nuclear Medicine Computer and Instrumentation Council," J. Nucl. Med. 36, 1489-1513 (1995).

2 H. Zaidi, "Quantitative SPECT: Recent developments in detector response, attenuation and scatter correction techniques," Physica Medica 12, 101-117 (1996).

3 A. G. Schulz, L. G. Knowles, L. C. Kohlenstein, R. F. Mucci, and W. A. Yates "Quantitative assessment of scanning-system parameters," J. Nucl. Med. 11, 61-68 (1970).

4 R. E. A. Dye, "Simulation of clinical scitingrams for nuclear medicine imaging devices," Phys. Med. Biol. 33, 1329-1334 (1988).

5 P. Gantet, J. P. Esquerre, B. Danet, R. Guiraud "A simulation method for studying scintillation camera collimators," Phys. Med. Biol. 35, 659-669 (1990).

6 F. J. Beekman and M. A. Viergever, "Fast SPECT simulation including object shape dependent scatter," IEEE Trans. Med. Imaging 14, 271-82 (1995).

7 J. S. Fleming "Evaluation of a technique for simulation of gamma camera images," Phys. Med. Biol. 41, 1855-1861 (1996).

8 D. D. McCracken, "The Monte Carlo Method," Sci. Am. 192, 90-96 (1955).

9 H. Kahn, "Use of different Monte Carlo sampling techniques," in Monte Carlo Methods ed. H. A. Meyer (Wiley, New York, 1956).

10 D. E. Raeside, "Monte Carlo principles and applications," Phys. Med. Biol. 21, 181-197 (1976).

11 T. M. Jenkins; W. R. Nelson, A. Rindi, Monte Carlo Transport of Electrons and Photons, (Plenum Press; New-York, 1988).

12 R. L. Morin, Monte Carlo simulation in the radiological sciences, (Boca Raton, FL: CRC, 1988).

13 I. Lux and L. Koblinger, Monte Carlo particle transport methods: Neutron and photon calculations, (Boca Raton, FL: Chemical Rubber Company, 1991).

14 M. Ljungberg, S-E. Strand, and M. A. King, Monte Carlo calculations in nuclear medicine, (IOP Publishing, London, 1998).

15 P. Andreo, "Monte Carlo techniques in medical radiation physics," Phys. Med. Biol. 36, 861-920 (1991).

16 J. E. Turner, H. A. Wright, R. N. Hamm, "A Monte Carlo primer for health physicists," Health Phys. 48, 717-733 (1985).

17 D. Murray, "Using EGS4 Monte Carlo in medical radiation physics," Australas Phys. Eng. Sci. Med. 13, 132-147 (1990).

18 M. M. Dresser, Scattering effects in radioisotopic imaging, PhD Thesis (University of Michigan, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI, 1972).

19 J. W. Beck, "Analysis of a camera based Single Photon Emission Coputed Tomography (SPECT) system," Thesis (University of Duke, University Microfilms, Ann Arbor, MI) (1982).

20 M. Ljungberg and S.-E. Strand, "A Monte Carlo program for the simulation of scintillation camera characteristics," Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 29, 257-272 (1989).

21 D. J. de Vries, S. C. Moore, R. E. Zimmerman, S. P. Mueller, B. Friedland, and R. C. Lanza, "Development and validation of a Monte Carlo simulation of photon transport in an Anger camera," IEEE Trans. Med. Imag. 9, 430-438, (1990).

22 I. G. Zubal, C. R. Harrell, P. D. Esser, "Monte Carlo determination of emerging energy spectra for diagnostically realistic radiopharmaceutical distributions." Nucl. Instr. Meth. Phys. Res. A299, 544-547 (1990).

23 J. C. Yanch, A. B. Dobrzeniecki, C. Ramanathan and R. Behrman, "Physically realistic Monte Carlo simulation of source collimator and tomographic data acquisition for emission computed tomography," Phys. Med. Biol. 37, 853-870 (1992).

24 N. A. Keller and J. R. Lupton, "PET detector ring aperture function calculations using Monte Carlo techniques," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 30, 676-680 (1983).

25 C. J. Thompson, J-M. Cantu and Y. Picard, "PETSIM: Monte Carlo program simulation of all sensitivity and resolution parameters of cylindrical positron imaging systems," Phys. Med. Biol. 37, 731-749 (1992).

26 R. L. Harrison, S. D. Vannoy, D. R. Haynor, S. B. Gillispie, M. S. Kaplan and T. K. Lewellen, "Preliminary experience with the photon history generator module for a public-domain simulation system for emission tomography," in Conf. Rec. IEEE Med. Imag. Conf., San Francisco, 1993, pp. 1154-1158 (New York IEEE, 1994).

27 H. Zaidi, A. Herrmann Scheurer and C. Morel, "Development of an object-oriented Monte Carlo simulator for 3D positron tomography," in Conf. Rec. of the International Meeting in Fully Three-Dimensional Image Reconstruction in Radiology and Nuclear Medicine, Nemacolin Woodlands, 1997, eds P. Kinahan and D. Townsend, pp. 176-179, (UPMC, Pittsburgh, 1997).

28 M. Dahlbom, L. R. MacDonald, M. Schmand, and L. Eriksson, M. Andreaco, and C. Willams,"A YSO/LSO phoswich array detector for single and coincidence photon imaging," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 45, 1128 1132 (1998).

29 F. James, "Monte Carlo theory and practice," Rep. Prog. Phys. 43, 1145-1189 (1980).

30 T. Lund, "An introduction to the Monte Carlo method," Rep.CERN/HS/067 CERN data handling division, Geneva (1981).

31 G. Marsaglia and A. Zaman, "Some portable very-long-period random number generators," Computers in Physics 8, 117-121 (1994).

32 J. C. Ehrhardt, "Generation of pseudorandom numbers," Med. Phys. 13, 240-241 (1986).

33 A. M. Ferrenberg, D. P. Landau, and Y. J. Wong, "Monte Carlo simulations: hidden errors from "good" random number generators," Phys. Rev. Let. 69, 3382-3384 (1992).

34 I. Vattulainen, K. Kankaala, J. Saarinen, and T. Ala-Nissila, "A comparative study of some pseudorandom number generators," Comp. Phys. Comm. 86, 209-226, (1995).

35 T. E. Booth, "The intelligent random number technique in MCNP," Nucl. Sci. Eng. 100, 248-54 (1988).

36 D. H. Lehmer, "Mathematical methods in large-scale computing units," In Proceedings of the 2nd Symposium on Large-Scale Digital Calculating Machinery, Cambridge, Massachusetts Harvard University Press, pp 141-146 (1949).

37 G. Marsaglia and A. Zaman, "Monkey tests for random number generators," Comp. Math. Applic. 23, 1-10 (1993).

38 D. E. Knuth, The Art of Computer Programming, Vol. 2: Seminumerical Algorithms, Second edition. (Addison-Wesley Reading, Massachusetts 1981).

39 W. H. Press, Numerical Recipes in C, The art of scientific computing, (University Press, Cambridge, 1992).

40 S. L. Anderson, "Random number generators on vector supercomputers and other advanced architectures," SIAM Review 32, 221-251 (1990).

41 M. Mascagni, S. A. Cuccaro, D. V. Pryor, and M. L. Robinson, "A fast, high-quality, and reproducible lagged-Fibonacci pseudorandom number generator," J. Comput. Physics 15, 211-219 (1995).

42 R. P. Brent, "On the periods of generalized Fibonacci recurrences," Math. Comput. 63, 389-401 (1994).

43 H. Zaidi, C. Labbé and C. Morel, "Implementation of an environment for Monte Carlo simulation of fully 3D positron tomography on a high-performance parallel platform," Parallel Computing, 9-10, 1523-1536 (1998)

44 A. E. Nahum, Overview of photon and electron Monte Carlo, edited by T. Jenkins, W. Nelson, A. Rindi, A. Nahum, and D. W. Rogers, pp 3-20, (Plenum Press, New York, 1989).

45 D. W. O. Rogers and A. F. Bielajew, Monte Carlo techniques of electron and photon transport for radiation dosimetry, in The Dosimetry of Ionizing Radiation, Vol III, eds. K.R. Kase, B.E. Bjarngard, and F.H. Attix, (Academic Press) pp 427-539 (1990).

46 M. J. Berger and J. H. Hubbell, XCOM: Photon cross sections on a personal computer, NBSIR 87-3597 (1987).

47 D. K. Trubey, M. J. Berger and J. H. Hubbell, "Photon cross sections for ENDF/B-IV," American Nuclear Society Topical Meeting, Advances in Nuclear Engineering Computation and Radiation Shielding , Santa Fe, New Mexico, (1989).

48 R. Brun, F. Bruyant, M. Maire, A. C. McPherson, and P. Zanarini, GEANT 3 (CERN DD/EE/84-1, 1987).

49 Y. Picard, C. J. Thompson and S. Marrett, "Improving the precision and accuracy of Monte Carlo simulation in positron emission tomography," IEEE Trans Nucl Sci 39, 1111-1116 (1992).

50 J. M. Boone and A. E. Chavez, "Comparison of x-ray cross sections for diagnostic and therapeutic medical physics," Med. Phys. 23, 1997-2005 (1997).

51 H. Zaidi, C. Labbé and C. Morel, "Improvement of the performance and accuracy of PET Monte Carlo simulations," To appear in Conf. Proc. SPIE's International Symposium on Medical imaging 1999, San Diego, USA.

52 ICRU, Tissue Substitutes in Radiation Dosimetry and Measurement, Report 44 of the International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements (Bethesda, MD, 1989).

53 W. V. Prestwich, J. Nunes, C. S. Kwok, "Beta dose point kernels for radionuclides of potential use in radioimmunotherapy", J. Nucl. Med. 30, 1036-1046 (1989).

54 T. E. Hui, D. R. Fisher, J. A. Kuhn, L. E. Williams, C. Nourigat, C. C. Badger, B. G. Beatty, J. D. Beatty, "A mouse model for calculating cross-organ beta doses from yttrium-90-labeled immunoconjugates," Cancer 1, (Suppl 3) 951-957 (1994).

55 E. E. Furhang, C. S. Chui, K. S. Kolbert, S. M. Larson, G. Sgouros, "Implementation of a Monte Carlo dosimetry method for patient-specific internal emitter therapy," Med. Phys. 24, 1163-1172 (1997).

56 M. J. Berger, Monte Carlo calculation of the penetration and diffusion of fast charged particles methods in computational physics. Vol 1, edited by B. Alder, S. Fernbach and M. Rotenberg (Academic Press, New York, 1963).[dieresis]

57 A. F. Bielajew and D. W. O. Rogers, "PRESTA: The Parameter reduced electron-step transport algorithm for electron Monte Carlo transport," Nucl. Instr. Meth. B18, 165-181 (1987).

58 P. Andreo, J. Medin, A. F. Bielajew, "Constraints of the multiple-scattering theory of Moliere in Monte Carlo simulations of the transport of charged particles," Med. Phys. 20, 1315-1325 (1993).

59 I. Kawrakow, "Improved modeling of multiple scattering in the voxel Monte Carlo model," Med. Phys. 24, 505-517 (1997).

60 D. W. O. Rogers, "Low energy electron transport with EGS," Nucl. Inst. Meth. 227, 535-548 (1984).

61 C. M. Ma and A. E. Nahum, "A new algorithm for EGS4 low-energy electron transport to account for the change in discrete interaction cross-section with energy," Nucl. Instru. Meth. B72, 319-330 (1992).

62 A. F. Bielajew and D. W. O. Rogers, Variance-reduction techniques, in Monte Carlo Transport of Electrons and Photons, edited by T. Jenkins, W. Nelson, A. Rindi, A. Nahum, and D. Rogers, pp 407-419, (Plenum Press, New York. 1989).

63 D. R. Haynor, R. L. Harrison and T. K. Lewellen, "Improving the efficiency of emission tomography using variance reduction techniques," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 37, 749-53 (1990).

64 I. G. Zubal, C. R. Harell, "Voxel-based Monte Carlo calculations of nuclear medicine images and applied variance reduction techniques," Image and Vision Computing 10, 342-348 (1992).

65 D. R. Haynor, R. L. Harrison, T. K. Lewellen, "The use of importance sampling techniques to improve the efficiency of photon tracking in emission tomography simulations," Med. Phys. 18, 990-1001 (1991).

66 C. M. Ma and A. E. Nahum, "Calculation of absorbed dose ratios using correlated Monte Carlo sampling," Med. Phys. 20, 1189-1199 (1993).

67 M. A. Holmes, T. R. Mackie, W. Sohn, P. J. Reckwerdt, T. J. Kinsella, A. F. Bielajew, D. W. Rogers, "The application of correlated sampling to the computation of electron beam dose distributions in heterogeneous phantoms using the Monte Carlo method," Phys. Med. Biol. 38, 675-688 (1993).

68 H.O. Anger, "Scintillation camera with multichannel collimators," J Nucl. Med. 5, 515-531 (1964).

69 R.J. Jaszczak, K.L. Greer, R.E. Coleman, "SPECT using a specially designed cone beam collimator," J. Nucl. Med. 29, 1398-1405 (1988).

70 B.M.W. Tsui, G.T. Gullberg, E.R. Edgerton, D.R. Gilland, J.R. Perry, W.H. McCartney, "Design and clinical utility of a fan beam collimator for SPECT imaging of the head," J. Nucl. Med. 27, 810-819 (1986).

71 D. A. Weber, M. Ivanovic, D. Franceschi, S. E. Strand, K. Erlandsson, M. Franceschi, H. L. Atkins, J. A. Coderre, H. Susskind, T. Button, et al, "Pinhole SPECT: an approach to in vivo high resolution SPECT imaging in small laboratory animals," J. Nucl. Med. 35, 342-348 (1994).

72 H. Zaidi, "Assessment of thyroid volume with pinhole emission computed tomography," Physica Medica. 12, 97-100 (1996).

73 C. Miller, L Filipow, S Jackson, "A review of activity quantification by planar imaging methods," J. Nucl. Med. Technol. 23, 3-11 (1995).

74 S. R. Cherry, "Recent advances in instrumentation for positron emission tomography," Nucl. Instr. Meth. A348, 577-582 (1994).

75 C. Michel, A. Bol, T. Spinks, D.W. Townsend, D. Bailey, S. Grootoonk and T. Jones, "Assessment of response function in two PET scanners with and without interplane septa," IEEE Trans. Med. Imag. 10, 240-248 (1991).

76 M. Dahlbom, G. Rosenquist, L. Eriksson, C. Bohm, "A study of the possibility of using multi-slice PET systems for 3D imaging," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 36, 1066-1071 (1989).

77 M. E. Daube-Witherspoon and G. Muehllehner, "Treatment of axial data in three-dimensional PET," J. Nucl. Med. 82, 1717-1724 (1987).

78 P. E. Kinahan and J. G. Rogers, "Analytic 3D image reconstruction using all detected events," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 36, 964-968 (1989).

79 C. Comtat C., C. Morel, M. Defrise and D. W. Townsend, "The Favor algorithm for 3D PET data and its implementation using a network of transputers," Phys. Med. Biol. 38, 929-944 (1993).

80 J. M. Ollinger, "Model-based scatter correction for fully 3D PET," Phys. Med. Biol. 41, 153-176 (1996).

81 C. C. Watson, D. Newport, M. E. Casey, A. deKemp, R. S. Beanlands and M. Schmand, "Evaluation of simulation-based scatter correction for 3-D PET cardiac imaging," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 44, 90-97 (1997).

82 J. T. Kuikka, K. E. Britton, V. U. Chengazi, S. Savolainen, "Future developments in nuclear medicine instrumentation: A review," Nucl. Med. Commun. 19, 3-12 (1998).

83 C. D. Zerby, A Monte Carlo calculation of the response of gamma-ray scintillation counters. Methods in Computational Physics, vol 1 ed B. Alder, S. Fermbach and M. Rotenberg (New York Acadmic) pp 89-134 (1963).

84 M. J. Berger and S. M. Seltzer, "Response functions for sodium iodide scintillation detectors," Nucl. Instrum. Methods A104, 317-332 (1972).

85 D. W. O. Rogers, "More realistic Monte Carlo calculations of photon detector response functions," Nucl. Instrum. Methods 199, 531-548 (1982).

86 K. Saito and S. Moriuchi, "Monte Carlo calculation of NaI(Tl) detector response functions for low-energy gamma rays," Nucl. Inst. Meth. 226, 449-454 (1984).

87 H. Chan, C. Chen, K. Doi, T. R. Fewell, and R. E. Shuping, "Investigation of energy responses of germanium detectors and correction of measured spectra by means of Monte Carlo simulation," Radiat. Res. 99, 443-463 (1984).

88 H. H. Hsu, E. J. Dowdy, G. P. Estes, M. C. Lucas, J. M. Mack, C. E. Moss, and M. E. Hamm, "Efficiency of bimsuth germanate scintillators: Comparison of Monte Carlo calculations with measurements," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 37, 390-395 (1989).

89 F. H. Fahey, R. E. Zimmerman, P.F. Judy, R. C. Lanza, "Detection efficiency of a high-pressure gas scintillation proportional chamber," Med. Phys. 14, 115-23 (1987).

90 E. Tanaka, N. Nohara, H. Murayama, "New Anger scintillation cameras with improved count rate capability," Radioisotopes 29, 320-325 (1980).

91 M. Conti, A. Del Guerra, D. Mazzei, P. Russo, W. Bencivelli, E. Bartolucci, A. Messineo, V. Rosso, A. Stefanini, U. Bottigli, P. Randaccio, and W. R. Nelson, "Use of the EGS4 Monte Carlo code to evaluate the response of HgI and CdTe detectors for photons in the diagnostic energy range," Nucl. Instr. Meth. A322, 591-595 (1992).

92 S E. Derenzo, "Monte Carlo calculations of the detection efficiency of NaI(Tl), BGO, CsF, Ge and plastic detectors for 511 keV photons," 28, 11-136 (1981).

93 S E. Derenzo, J. K. Riles, "Monte Carlo calculations of the optical coupling between bismuth germanate crystals and photomultiplier tubes," 29, 191-195 (1982).

94 U. Bottigli, R. Guzzardi, M. Mey, R. Bellazzini, P. Giannetti, M. A. Giorgi, M. M. Massai, G. Tonelli, "Monte Carlo simulation and experimental tests on BGO, CsF and NaI(Tl) crystals for positron emission tomography," J. Nucl. Med. Allied. Sci 29, 221-227 (1985).

95 A. N. Bice, T. K. Lewellen. R. S. Miyaoka, R. L. Harrison, D. R. Haynor, K. R. Pollard, C. P. Hanson, and S. B. Gillispie, "Monte Carlo simulation of BaF2 detectors used in time-of-flight positron emission tomography," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 37, 696-701 (1990).

96 M. I. Lopes, V. Chepel, J. C. Carvalho, R. Ferreira Marques and A.J.P.L. Policarpo, "Performance analysis based on a Monte Carlo simulation of a liquid Xenon PET detector," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 42, 2298-2302 (1995).

97 P. F. Binkley, "Optimization of scintillation detector timing systems using Monte Carlo analysis," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 41, 386-393 (1994).

98 R. H. Huesman, E. M. Salmeron, and J. R. Baker, "Compensation for crystal penetration in high resolution positron tomography," IEEE Trans. Nucl . Sci. 36, 1100-1107 (1989).

99 K. A. Comanor, P. R. G. Virador and W. W. Moses, "Algorithms to identify detector Compton scatter in PET modules," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 43, 2213-2218 ( (1996).

100 T. A. DeVol, W. W. Moses and S. E. Derenzo, "Monte Carlo optimization of depth-of-interaction resolution in PET crystals," IEEE Trans Nucl Sci. 40, 170- 174, (1993).

101 W. W. Moses and S. E. Derenzo, "Design studies for a PET detector module using a PIN photodiode to measure depth of interaction," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci., 41, 1441-1445, (1994).

102 G. Tsang, C. Moisan and J. G. Rogers, A simulation to model position encoding multicrystal PET detectors, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 42, 2236-2243 (1995).

103 C. Moisan, J. G. Rogers, K.R. Buckley, T.J. Ruth, M.W. Stazyk and G. Tsang "Design studies of a depth-encoding large aperture PET camera," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 42, 1041-1050 (1995).

104 D. Vozza, C. Moisan and S. Paquet, "An improved model for energy resolution of multicrystal encoding detectors for PET," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 44, 179-183 (1997).

105 S. Delorme, R. Frei, C. Jospeh, J.-F. Loude and C. Morel, "Use of a neural network to exploit light division in a triangular scintillating crystal," Nucl. Instr. Meth. A373, 111-118 (1996).

106 D. W. Litzenberg, F. D. Becchetti and D. A. Roberts, "On-line PET monitoring of radiotherapy beams: image reconstruction and Monte Carlo simulations of detector geometries, IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 44, 1646-1657 (1997).

107 H. Zaidi, "Comparative methods for quantifying thyroid volume using planar imaging and SPECT". J. Nucl. Med.37, 1421-1426 (1996).

108 L. J. Hahn, R. J. Jaszczak, G. T. Gullberg, C. E. Floyd, S. H. Manglos, K. L. Greer, R. E. Coleman, "Noise characteristics for cone beam collimators: a comparison with parallel hole collimator," Phys. Med. Biol. 33, 541-555 (1988).

109 S. Kimiaei and S. A. Larsson, "Optimal design of planar-concave collimators for SPECT - an analytical approach" Phys. Med. Biol. 43, 637-650 (1998).

110 J. J. Battista and M. J. Bronskill, "Compton-scatter tissue densitometry: calculation of single and multiple scatter photon fluences," Phys. Med. Biol. 23, 1-23 (1978).

111 S. Webb, D. M. Binnie, M. A. Flower, R. J. Ott, "Monte Carlo modelling of the performance of a rotating slit-collimator for improved planar gamma-camera imaging," Phys. Med. Biol. 37, 1095-1108 (1992).

112 C. E. Metz, F. B. Atkins, R. N. Beck, "The geometric transfer function component for scintillation camera collimators with straight parallel holes," Phys. Med. Biol. 25, 1059-1070 (1980).

113 S. Kimiaei, M. Ljungberg, and S. A. Larsson, "Evaluation of optimally designed planar-concave collimators in single-photon emission tomography," Eur. J. Nucl. Med. 24, 1398-1404 (1997).

114 C. J. Thompson, "The effect of collimation on singles rates in multi-slice PET," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 35, 598-602 (1988).

115 W. M. Digby, M. Dahlbom, E, J, Hoffman, "Detector, shielding and geometric design factors for a high-resolution PET system," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 37, 664-670 (1990).

116 S. C. Moore, D. J. de Vries, B. Nandram, M. F. Kijewski, S. P. Mueller, "Collimator optimization for lesion detection incorporating prior information about lesion size," Med. Phys. 22, 703-713 (1995).

117 R. J. Jaszczak, C. E. Floyd, S. H. Manglos, K. L. Greer, R. E. Coleman, "Cone beam collimation for single photon emission computed tomography: analysis, simulation, and image reconstruction using filtered backprojection," Med. Phys. 13, 484-489 (1986).

118 K. R. Pollard, A. N. Bice, J. F. Eary, L. D. Durack, T. K. Lewellen, "A method for imaging therapeutic doses of iodine-131 with a clinical gamma camera," J. Nucl. Med. 33, 771-776 (1992).

119 H. Wang, R. J. Jaszczak, Coleman, R.E. "Monte Carlo modeling of penetration effect for iodine-131 pinhole imaging," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 43, 3272-3277 (1996).

120 M. F. Smith, R. J. Jaszczak, "The effect of gamma ray penetration on angle-dependent sensitivity for pinhole collimation in nuclear medicine," Med. Phys. 24, 1701-1709 (1997).

121 C. J. Thompson, J. M. Roney, R. Lecomte, D. Schmitt, L. R. Lupton, "Dependence of the coincidence aperture function of narrow BGO crystals on crystal shape and light encoding schemes," Phys. Med. Biol. 31, 491-506 (1986).

122 C. J. Thompson, "The effect of collimation on scatter fraction in multi-slice PET," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 36, 1072-1077 (1989).

123 Bradshaw J, Burnham C and Correia J. "Application of Monte Carlo methods to the design of SPECT detector systems," IEEE Trans Nucl Sci. 32, 753-757 (1985).

124 L. R. Lupton and N. A. Keller, "Performance study of single-slice positron emission tomography scanners by Monte Carlo techniques," IEEE Trans. Med. Imag. 2, 154-168 (1983).

125 J. A. Heanue, J. K. Brown, H. R. Tang, B. H. Hasegawa "A bound on the energy resolution required for quantitative SPECT," Med Phys 23, 169-173 (1996).

126 G. H. Kramer, M. J. Chamberlain and S. Yiu, "A study of thyroid radioiodine monitoring by Monte Carlo simulations: implications for equipment design," Phys. Med. Biol. 42, 2175-2182 (1997).

127 C. W. Stearns, C. A. Burnham, D. A. Chesler, and G. L. Brownell, "Simulation studies for cylindrical positron tomography," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 35, 708-711 (1988).

128 J. G. Rogers, R. Harrop, P. E. Kinahan, N. A. Wilkinson, and G. H. Coombes, "Conceptual design of a whole body PET machine" IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 35, 680-684 (1988).

129 A. Del Guerra and W. R. Nelson, Positron emission tomography applications of EGS, in Monte Carlo transport of electrons and photons. ed. Jenkins TM, Nelson WR, Rindi A, Plenum publishing corporation, pp 469-484 (1988).

130 D. Bollini, A. Del Guerra, G. Di Domenico, M. Galli, M. Gambaccini and G. Zavattini, "Sub-millimeter planar imaging with positron emitters: EGS4 code simulation and experimental results," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 44, 1499-1502 (1997).

131 C. J. Thompson, "The effects of detector material and structure on PET spatial resolution and efficiency," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 37, 718-724 (1990).

132 G. Tzanakos and S. Pavlopoulos, "Development and validation of a simulation model for the design of a PET scanner," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 39, 1093-1098 (1992).

133 S. Pavlopoulos and G. Tzanakos, "Design and performance evaluation of a high-resolution small animal positron tomograph," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 43, 3249-3255 (1996).

134 R. S. Miyaoka, "Dynamic high resolution positron emission imaging of rats," Biomed. Sci. Instrum. 27, 35-42 (1991).

135 W. W. Moses, P. R. G. Virador, S. E. Derenzo, R. H. Huesman and T. F. Budinger, "Design of a high-resolution, high-sensitivity PET camera for human brains and small animals," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 44, 1487-1491 (1997).

136 R. R. Raylman, B. E. Hammer and N. L. Christensen, "Combined MRI-PET scanner: a Monte Carlo evaluation of the improvements in PET resolution due to the effects of a static homogeneous magnetic field," IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 43, 2406-2412 (1996).

137 J. G. Rogers, M. Stazyk, R. Harrop, C. J. Dykstra, J. S. Barney, M. S. Atkins, and P. E. Kinahan, "Towards the design of a positron imaging camera" IEEE Trans. Nucl. Sci. 37, 789-794 (1990).

138 H. Zaidi, A. Herrmann Scheurer and C. Morel, "An object-oriented Monte Carlo simulator for 3D positron tomographs," Comput. Methods Programs Biomed. 58 , 133-145 (1999)

139 M. Defrise, "A factorization method for the 3D X-ray transform," Inverse Problems 11, 983-994 (1995).

140 K. M. Hanson, "Method of evaluating image-recovery algorithms based on task performance," J. Opt. Soc. Am. A. 7, 1294-304 (1990).

141 T. A. Riauka, H. R. Hooper, Z. W. Gortel, "Experimental and numerical investigation of the 3D SPECT photon detection kernel for non-uniform attenuating media," Phys. Med. Biol. 41, 1167-1189 (1996).

142 M. F. Smith , C. E. Floyd, R. J. Jaszczak, R. E. Coleman, "Three-dimensional photon detection kernels and their application to SPECT reconstruction," Phys. Med. Biol. 3, 605-622 (1992).

143 M. A. King, W. Xia, D. J. de Vries, T. S. Pan, B. J. Villegas, S. Dahlberg, B. M. Tsui, M. Ljungberg, H. T. Morgan, "A Monte Carlo investigation of artifacts caused by liver uptake in single-photon emission computed tomography perfusion imaging with technetium 99m-labeled agents," J. Nucl. Cardiol. 3, 18-29 (1996).

144 C. E. Floyd, R. J. Jaszczak, R. E. Coleman, "Convergence of the maximum likelihood reconstruction algorithm for emission computed tomography," Phys. Med. Biol. 32, 463-476 (1987).

145 J. E. Bowsher, C. E. Floyd, "Treatment of Compton scattering in maximum-likelihood, expectation-maximization reconstructions of SPECT images," J. Nucl. Med. 32, 1285-1291 (1991).

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